This page contains four specific areas:
Creating Effective Assignments
Checking the Assignment
Sequencing Writing Assignments
Selecting an Effective Writing Assignment Format
Creating Effective Assignments
Research has shown that the more detailed a writing assignment is, the better the student papers are in response to that assignment. Instructors can often help students write more effective papers by giving students written instructions about that assignment. Explicit descriptions of assignments on the syllabus or on an "assignment sheet" tend to produce the best results. These instructions might make explicit the process or steps necessary to complete the assignment. Assignment sheets should detail:
the kind of writing expected
the scope of acceptable subject matter
the length requirements
formatting requirements
documentation format
the amount and type of research expected (if any)
the writer's role
deadlines for the first draft and its revision
Providing questions or needed data in the assignment helps students get started. For instance, some questions can suggest a mode of organization to the students. Other questions might suggest a procedure to follow. The questions posed should require that students assert a thesis.
The following areas should help you create effective writing assignments.
Examining your goals for the assignment
1. How exactly does this assignment fit with the objectives of your course?
2. Should this assignment relate only to the class and the texts for the class, or should it also relate to the world beyond the classroom?
3. What do you want the students to learn or experience from this writing assignment?
4. Should this assignment be an individual or a collaborative effort?
5. What do you want students to show you in this assignment? To demonstrate mastery of concepts or texts? To demonstrate logical and critical thinking? To develop an original idea? To learn and demonstrate the procedures, practices, and tools of your field of study?
Defining the writing task
1. Is the assignment sequenced so that students: (1) write a draft, (2) receive feedback (from you, fellow students, or staff members at the Writing and Communication Center), and (3) then revise it? Such a procedure has been proven to accomplish at least two goals: it improves the student's writing and it discourages plagiarism.
2. Does the assignment include so many sub-questions that students will be confused about the major issue they should examine? Can you give more guidance about what the paper's main focus should be? Can you reduce the number of sub-questions?
3. What is the purpose of the assignment (e.g., review knowledge already learned, find additional information, synthesize research, examine a new hypothesis)? Making the purpose(s) of the assignment explicit helps students write the kind of paper you want.
4. What is the required form (e.g., expository essay, lab report, memo, business report)?
5. What mode is required for the assignment (e.g., description, narration, analysis, persuasion, a combination of two or more of these)?
Defining the audience for the paper
1. Can you define a hypothetical audience to help students determine which concepts to define and explain? When students write only to the instructor, they may assume that little, if anything, requires explanation. Defining the whole class as the intended audience will clarify this issue for students.
2. What is the probable attitude of the intended readers toward the topic itself? Toward the student writer's thesis? Toward the student writer?
3. What is the probable educational and economic background of the intended readers?
Defining the writer's role
1. Can you make explicit what persona you wish the students to assume? For example, a very effective role for student writers is that of a "professional in training" who uses the assumptions, the perspective, and the conceptual tools of the discipline.
Defining your evaluative criteria
1. If possible, explain the relative weight in grading assigned to the quality of writing and the assignment's content:
depth of coverage
organization
focus
critical thinking
original thinking
use of research
logical demonstration
appropriate mode of structure and analysis (e.g., comparison, argument)
format
correct use of sources
grammar and mechanics
professional tone
correct use of course-specific concepts and terms.
Checking the Assignment
Here's a checklist for writing assignments:
1. Have you used explicit command words in your instructions (e.g., "compare and contrast" and "explain" are more explicit than "explore" or "consider")? The more explicit the command words, the better chance the students will write the type of paper you wish.
2. Does the assignment suggest a topic, thesis, and format? Should it?
3. Have you told students the kind of audience they are addressing -- the level of knowledge they can assume the readers have and your particular preferences (e.g., "avoid slang, use the first-person sparingly")?
4. If the assignment has several stages of completion, have you made the various deadlines clear? Is your policy on due dates clear?
5. Have you presented the assignment in a manageable form? For instance, a 5-page assignment sheet for a 1-page paper may overwhelm students. Similarly, a 1-sentence assignment for a 25-page paper may offer insufficient guidance.
Sequencing Writing Assignments
There are several benefits of sequencing writing assignments:
1. Sequencing provides a sense of coherence for the course.
2. This approach helps students see progress and purpose in their work rather than seeing the writing assignments as separate exercises.
3. It encourages complexity through sustained attention, revision, and consideration of multiple perspectives.
4. If you have only one large paper due near the end of the course, you might create a sequence of smaller assignments leading up to and providing a foundation for that larger paper (e.g., proposal of the topic, an annotated bibliography, a progress report, a summary of the paper's key argument, a first draft of the paper itself). This approach allows you to give students guidance and also discourages plagiarism.
5. It mirrors the approach to written work in many professions.
The concept of sequencing writing assignments also allows for a wide range of options in creating the assignment. It is often beneficial to have students submit the components suggested below to your course's STELLAR web site.
Use the writing process itself. In its simplest form, "sequencing an assignment" can mean establishing some sort of "official" check of the prewriting and drafting steps in the writing process. This step guarantees that students will not write the whole paper in one sitting and also gives students more time to let their ideas develop. This check might be something as informal as having students work on their prewriting or draft for a few minutes at the end of class. Or it might be something more formal such as collecting the prewriting and giving a few suggestions and comments.
Have students submit drafts. You might ask students to submit a first draft in order to receive your quick responses to its content, or have them submit written questions about the content and scope of their projects after they have completed their first draft.
Establish small groups. Set up small writing groups of three-five students from the class. Allow them to meet for a few minutes in class or have them arrange a meeting outside of class to comment constructively on each other's drafts. The students do not need to be writing on the same topic.
Require consultations. Have students consult with someone in the Writing and Communication Center about their prewriting and/or drafts. The Center has yellow forms that we can give to students to inform you that such a visit was made.
Explore a subject in increasingly complex ways. A series of reading and writing assignments may be linked by the same subject matter or topic. Students encounter new perspectives and competing ideas with each new reading, and thus must evaluate and balance various views and adopt a position that considers the various points of view.
Change modes of discourse. In this approach, students' assignments move from less complex to more complex modes of discourse (e.g., from expressive to analytic to argumentative; or from lab report to position paper to research article).
Change audiences. In this approach, students create drafts for different audiences, moving from personal to public (e.g., from self-reflection to an audience of peers to an audience of specialists). Each change would require different tasks and more extensive knowledge.
Change perspective through time. In this approach, students might write a statement of their understanding of a subject or issue at the beginning of a course and then return at the end of the semester to write an analysis of that original stance in the light of the experiences and knowledge gained in the course.
Use a natural sequence. A different approach to sequencing is to create a series of assignments culminating in a final writing project. In scientific and technical writing, for example, students could write a proposal requesting approval of a particular topic. The next assignment might be a progress report (or a series of progress reports), and the final assignment could be the report or document itself. For humanities and social science courses, students might write a proposal requesting approval of a particular topic, then hand in an annotated bibliography, and then a draft, and then the final version of the paper.
Have students submit sections. A variation of the previous approach is to have students submit various sections of their final document throughout the semester (e.g., their bibliography, review of the literature, methods section).
Selecting an Effective Writing Assignment Format
In addition to the standard essay and report formats, several other formats exist that might give students a different slant on the course material or allow them to use slightly different writing skills. Here are some suggestions:
Journals. Journals have become a popular format in recent years for courses that require some writing. In-class journal entries can spark discussions and reveal gaps in students' understanding of the material. Having students write an in-class entry summarizing the material covered that day can aid the learning process and also reveal concepts that require more elaboration. Out-of-class entries involve short summaries or analyses of texts, or are a testing ground for ideas for student papers and reports. Although journals may seem to add a huge burden for instructors to correct, in fact many instructors either spot-check journals (looking at a few particular key entries) or grade them based on the number of entries completed. Journals are usually not graded for their prose style. STELLAR forums work well for out-of-class entries.
Letters. Students can define and defend a position on an issue in a letter written to someone in authority. They can also explain a concept or a process to someone in need of that particular information. They can write a letter to a friend explaining their concerns about an upcoming paper assignment or explaining their ideas for an upcoming paper assignment. If you wish to add a creative element to the writing assignment, you might have students adopt the persona of an important person discussed in your course (e.g., an historical figure) and write a letter explaining his/her actions, process, or theory to an interested person (e.g., "pretend that you are John Wilkes Booth and write a letter to the Congress justifying your assassination of Abraham Lincoln," or "pretend you are Henry VIII writing to Thomas More explaining your break from the Catholic Church").
Editorials. Students can define and defend a position on a controversial issue in the format of an editorial for the campus or local newspaper or for a national journal.
Cases. Students might create a case study particular to the course's subject matter.
Position Papers. Students can define and defend a position, perhaps as a preliminary step in the creation of a formal research paper or essay.
Imitation of a Text. Students can create a new document "in the style of" a particular writer (e.g., "Create a government document the way Woody Allen might write it" or "Write your own 'Modest Proposal' about a modern issue").
Instruction Manuals. Students write a step-by-step explanation of a process.
Dialogues. Students create a dialogue between two major figures studied in which they not only reveal those people's theories or thoughts but also explore areas of possible disagreement (e.g., "Write a dialogue between Claude Monet and Jackson Pollock about the nature and uses of art").
Collaborative projects. Students work together to create such works as reports, questions, and critiques.
Mejuah-juah Kita Kerina
Kamis, 25 Maret 2010
The Keys to Effective Writing
Tips for Tackling Your Essays and Papers
Writing skills are essential for succeeding in high school, college, and on the job. If essays and papers stress you out, keep in mind that writing is not just an end result, but also a process that helps you develop your ideas and think logically.
Get Started
Begin by brainstorming topics, collecting information, taking a lot of notes, and asking a lot of questions. Keep your notes and sources organized as you go.
When developing your topic, look for patterns and relationships. See what conclusions you can draw. Try discussing your ideas with classmates or your teacher. A new perspective can help shake up your thinking, and keep your momentum going.
Organize Your Writing
Develop an outline to help you stay on track as you write, identifying your main points and your conclusions. Keep in mind basic essay structure:
Introduction: Give your reader an idea of the essay's intent, including a basic statement of what the essay will discuss.
Body: Present the evidence that supports your idea. Use concrete examples and avoid generalities.
Conclusion: Summarize and make sense of the evidence you presented in the body.
Draft Your Essay
You may find, as you write, that you end up with a different idea from the one you began with. If your first topic or conclusion doesn't hold water, be open to changing it. If necessary, rewrite your outline to get yourself back on track.
Other important writing tips:
Keep your audience in mind: Write for the general reader, unless your teacher tells you otherwise. The general reader refers to anyone of average intelligence with a fairly sound, basic education.
Get acquainted with the vocabulary: Become familiar with the vocabulary of your subject. For example, when writing about fiction, drama, and poetry, critical writers use words such as syntax, tone, attitude, voice, speaker, and thesis.
Refine and Proofread
When you're done with the rough draft, take a break so you can come back to your writing with fresh eyes. Ask yourself:
Is the writing clear?
Do the ideas make sense?
Are my ideas supported by evidence?
Are all of my requirements fulfilled?
Did I avoid repetition?
Have I used proper grammar and spelling?
How does it sound read out loud?
Leave enough time to show your draft to others—use your school's writing center, if possible. A fresh perspective can help you polish your paper, and catch inconsistencies and mistakes.
Read More
What you read influences how you write and can become your teacher without your being aware of it. Keep this in mind when choosing between Teen People and challenging novels like Great Expectations.
Not sure what to read? If you liked a book you read in class, ask your teachers to recommend others like it, or read more by the same author. For ideas on great reading check out our 101 Great Books list.
Reading is also a great way to conquer writer's block. Reading helps exercise your mind and get your ideas moving again. Of course, a great way to prevent writer's block is to write more.
Write More
You've heard it before, but this advice never gets old: practice makes perfect. The more writing you do, the better you'll get. And as your skills improve, so will your enjoyment. Here are a few ways some students write outside the classroom that you might want to consider:
Keep a journal of your thoughts and the events of the day.
Start a 'zine with your friends on topics important to you.
Write letters to the editor of the magazines and newspapers you read.
When you're in the habit of writing—no matter what kind of writing it is—papers and essays won't seem as difficult.
Writing skills are essential for succeeding in high school, college, and on the job. If essays and papers stress you out, keep in mind that writing is not just an end result, but also a process that helps you develop your ideas and think logically.
Get Started
Begin by brainstorming topics, collecting information, taking a lot of notes, and asking a lot of questions. Keep your notes and sources organized as you go.
When developing your topic, look for patterns and relationships. See what conclusions you can draw. Try discussing your ideas with classmates or your teacher. A new perspective can help shake up your thinking, and keep your momentum going.
Organize Your Writing
Develop an outline to help you stay on track as you write, identifying your main points and your conclusions. Keep in mind basic essay structure:
Introduction: Give your reader an idea of the essay's intent, including a basic statement of what the essay will discuss.
Body: Present the evidence that supports your idea. Use concrete examples and avoid generalities.
Conclusion: Summarize and make sense of the evidence you presented in the body.
Draft Your Essay
You may find, as you write, that you end up with a different idea from the one you began with. If your first topic or conclusion doesn't hold water, be open to changing it. If necessary, rewrite your outline to get yourself back on track.
Other important writing tips:
Keep your audience in mind: Write for the general reader, unless your teacher tells you otherwise. The general reader refers to anyone of average intelligence with a fairly sound, basic education.
Get acquainted with the vocabulary: Become familiar with the vocabulary of your subject. For example, when writing about fiction, drama, and poetry, critical writers use words such as syntax, tone, attitude, voice, speaker, and thesis.
Refine and Proofread
When you're done with the rough draft, take a break so you can come back to your writing with fresh eyes. Ask yourself:
Is the writing clear?
Do the ideas make sense?
Are my ideas supported by evidence?
Are all of my requirements fulfilled?
Did I avoid repetition?
Have I used proper grammar and spelling?
How does it sound read out loud?
Leave enough time to show your draft to others—use your school's writing center, if possible. A fresh perspective can help you polish your paper, and catch inconsistencies and mistakes.
Read More
What you read influences how you write and can become your teacher without your being aware of it. Keep this in mind when choosing between Teen People and challenging novels like Great Expectations.
Not sure what to read? If you liked a book you read in class, ask your teachers to recommend others like it, or read more by the same author. For ideas on great reading check out our 101 Great Books list.
Reading is also a great way to conquer writer's block. Reading helps exercise your mind and get your ideas moving again. Of course, a great way to prevent writer's block is to write more.
Write More
You've heard it before, but this advice never gets old: practice makes perfect. The more writing you do, the better you'll get. And as your skills improve, so will your enjoyment. Here are a few ways some students write outside the classroom that you might want to consider:
Keep a journal of your thoughts and the events of the day.
Start a 'zine with your friends on topics important to you.
Write letters to the editor of the magazines and newspapers you read.
When you're in the habit of writing—no matter what kind of writing it is—papers and essays won't seem as difficult.
Tips on Effective Listening
"We were given two ears but only one mouth, because listening is twice as hard as talking."
Brief Theory of Communication
Expressing our wants, feelings, thoughts and opinions clearly and effectively is only half of the communication process needed for interpersonal effectiveness. The other half is listening and understanding what others communicate to us. When a person decides to communicate with another person, he/she does so to fulfill a need. The person wants something, feels discomfort, and/or has feelings or thoughts about something. In deciding to communicate, the person selects the method or code which he/she believes will effectively deliver the message to the other person. The code used to send the message can be either verbal or nonverbal. When the other person receives the coded message, they go through the process of decoding or interpreting it into understanding and meaning. Effective communication exists between two people when the receiver interprets and understands the sender’s message in the same way the sender intended it.
Sources of Difficulty by the Speaker
Voice volume too low to be heard.
Making the message too complex, either by including too many unnecessary details or too many issues.
Getting lost, forgetting your point or the purpose of the interaction.
Body language or nonverbal elements contradicting or interfering with the verbal message, such as smiling when anger or hurt is being expressed.
Paying too much attention to how the other person is taking the message, or how the person might react.
Using a very unique code or unconventional method for delivering the message.
Sources of Difficulty by the Listener
Being preoccupied and not listening.
Being so interested in what you have to say that you listen mainly to find an opening to get the floor.
Formulating and listening to your own rebuttal to what the speaker is saying.
Listening to your own personal beliefs about what is being said.
Evaluating and making judgments about the speaker or the message.
Not asking for clarification when you know that you do not understand.
The Three Basic Listening Modes
Competitive or Combative Listening happens when we are more interested in promoting our own point of view than in understanding or exploring someone else’s view. We either listen for openings to take the floor, or for flaws or weak points we can attack. As we pretend to pay attention we are impatiently waiting for an opening, or internally formulating our rebuttal and planning our devastating comeback that will destroy their argument and make us the victor.
In Passive or Attentive Listening we are genuinely interested in hearing and understanding the other person’s point of view. We are attentive and passively listen. We assume that we heard and understand correctly. but stay passive and do not verify it.
Active or Reflective Listening is the single most useful and important listening skill. In active listening we are also genuinely interested in understanding what the other person is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means, and we are active in checking out our understanding before we respond with our own new message. We restate or paraphrase our understanding of their message and reflect it back to the sender for verification. This verification or feedback process is what distinguishes active listening and makes it effective.
Levels of Communication
Listening effectively is difficult because people vary in their communication skills and in how clearly they express themselves, and often have different needs, wants and purposes for interacting. The different types of interaction or levels of communication also adds to the difficulty. The four different types or levels are.
Clichés.
Facts.
Thoughts and beliefs.
Feelings and emotions.
As a listener we attend to the level that we think is most important. Failing to recognize the level most relevant and important to the speaker can lead to a kind of crossed wires where the two people are not on the same wavelength. The purpose of the contact and the nature of our relationship with the person will usually determine what level or levels are appropriate and important for the particular interaction. Note the different requirements in the following situations:
You’re lost, and you ask a stranger for directions.
Your child comes to you crying.
You are in trouble and someone offers to help.
Your spouse is being affectionate and playful.
Opposing council is cross-examining you in court.
If we don’t address the appropriate elements we will not be very effective, and can actually make the situation worse. For example: If your wife is telling you about her hurt feelings and you focus on the facts of the situation and don’t acknowledge her feelings, she will likely become even more upset.
There is a real distinction between merely hearing the words and really listening for the message. When we listen effectively we understand what the person is thinking and/or feeling from the other person’s own perspective. It is as if we were standing in the other person’s shoes, seeing through his/her eyes and listening through the person's ears. Our own viewpoint may be different and we may not necessarily agree with the person, but as we listen, we understand from the other's perspective. To listen effectively, we must be actively involved in the communication process, and not just listening passively.
We all act and respond on the basis of our understanding, and too often there is a misunderstanding that neither of us is aware of. With active listening, if a misunderstanding has occurred, it will be known immediately, and the communication can be clarified before any further misunderstanding occurs.
Several other possible benefits occur with active listening:
Sometimes a person just needs to be heard and acknowledged before the person is willing to consider an alternative or soften his /her position.
It is often easier for a person to listen to and consider the other’s position when that person knows the other is listening and considering his/her position.
It helps people to spot the flaws in their reasoning when they hear it played back without criticism.
It also helps identify areas of agreement so the areas of disagreement are put in perspective and are diminished rather than magnified.
Reflecting back what we hear each other say helps give each a chance to become aware of the different levels that are going on below the surface. This helps to bring things into the open where they can be more readily resolved.
If we accurately understand the other person’s view, we can be more effective in helping the person see the flaws in his/her position.
If we listen so we can accurately understand the other’s view, we can also be more effective in discovering the flaws in our own position.
Listening Tips
Usually it is important to paraphrase and use your own words in verbalizing your understanding of the message. Parroting back the words verbatim is annoying and does not ensure accurate understanding of the message.
Depending on the purpose of the interaction and your understanding of what is relevant, you could reflect back the other persons:
Account of the facts.
Thoughts and beliefs.
Feelings and emotions.
Wants, needs or motivation.
Hopes and expectations.
Don’t respond to just the meaning of the words, look for the feelings or intent beyond the words. The dictionary or surface meaning of the words or code used by the sender is not the message.
Inhibit your impulse to immediately answer questions. The code may be in the form of a question. Sometimes people ask questions when they really want to express themselves and are not open to hearing an answer.
Know when to quit using active listening. Once you accurately understand the sender’s message, it may be appropriate to respond with your own message. Don’t use active listening to hide and avoid revealing your own position.
If you are confused and know you do not understand, either tell the person you don’t understand and ask him/her to say it another way, or use your best guess. If you are incorrect, the person will realize it and will likely attempt to correct your misunderstanding.
Active listening is a very effective first response when the other person is angry, hurt or expressing difficult feelings toward you, especially in relationships that are important to you.
Use eye contact and listening body language. Avoid looking at your watch or at other people or activities around the room. Face and lean toward the speaker and nod your head, as it is appropriate. Be careful about crossing your arms and appearing closed or critical.
Be empathic and nonjudgmental. You can be accepting and respectful of the person and their feelings and beliefs without invalidating or giving up your own position, or without agreeing with the accuracy and validity of their view.
Brief Theory of Communication
Expressing our wants, feelings, thoughts and opinions clearly and effectively is only half of the communication process needed for interpersonal effectiveness. The other half is listening and understanding what others communicate to us. When a person decides to communicate with another person, he/she does so to fulfill a need. The person wants something, feels discomfort, and/or has feelings or thoughts about something. In deciding to communicate, the person selects the method or code which he/she believes will effectively deliver the message to the other person. The code used to send the message can be either verbal or nonverbal. When the other person receives the coded message, they go through the process of decoding or interpreting it into understanding and meaning. Effective communication exists between two people when the receiver interprets and understands the sender’s message in the same way the sender intended it.
Sources of Difficulty by the Speaker
Voice volume too low to be heard.
Making the message too complex, either by including too many unnecessary details or too many issues.
Getting lost, forgetting your point or the purpose of the interaction.
Body language or nonverbal elements contradicting or interfering with the verbal message, such as smiling when anger or hurt is being expressed.
Paying too much attention to how the other person is taking the message, or how the person might react.
Using a very unique code or unconventional method for delivering the message.
Sources of Difficulty by the Listener
Being preoccupied and not listening.
Being so interested in what you have to say that you listen mainly to find an opening to get the floor.
Formulating and listening to your own rebuttal to what the speaker is saying.
Listening to your own personal beliefs about what is being said.
Evaluating and making judgments about the speaker or the message.
Not asking for clarification when you know that you do not understand.
The Three Basic Listening Modes
Competitive or Combative Listening happens when we are more interested in promoting our own point of view than in understanding or exploring someone else’s view. We either listen for openings to take the floor, or for flaws or weak points we can attack. As we pretend to pay attention we are impatiently waiting for an opening, or internally formulating our rebuttal and planning our devastating comeback that will destroy their argument and make us the victor.
In Passive or Attentive Listening we are genuinely interested in hearing and understanding the other person’s point of view. We are attentive and passively listen. We assume that we heard and understand correctly. but stay passive and do not verify it.
Active or Reflective Listening is the single most useful and important listening skill. In active listening we are also genuinely interested in understanding what the other person is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means, and we are active in checking out our understanding before we respond with our own new message. We restate or paraphrase our understanding of their message and reflect it back to the sender for verification. This verification or feedback process is what distinguishes active listening and makes it effective.
Levels of Communication
Listening effectively is difficult because people vary in their communication skills and in how clearly they express themselves, and often have different needs, wants and purposes for interacting. The different types of interaction or levels of communication also adds to the difficulty. The four different types or levels are.
Clichés.
Facts.
Thoughts and beliefs.
Feelings and emotions.
As a listener we attend to the level that we think is most important. Failing to recognize the level most relevant and important to the speaker can lead to a kind of crossed wires where the two people are not on the same wavelength. The purpose of the contact and the nature of our relationship with the person will usually determine what level or levels are appropriate and important for the particular interaction. Note the different requirements in the following situations:
You’re lost, and you ask a stranger for directions.
Your child comes to you crying.
You are in trouble and someone offers to help.
Your spouse is being affectionate and playful.
Opposing council is cross-examining you in court.
If we don’t address the appropriate elements we will not be very effective, and can actually make the situation worse. For example: If your wife is telling you about her hurt feelings and you focus on the facts of the situation and don’t acknowledge her feelings, she will likely become even more upset.
There is a real distinction between merely hearing the words and really listening for the message. When we listen effectively we understand what the person is thinking and/or feeling from the other person’s own perspective. It is as if we were standing in the other person’s shoes, seeing through his/her eyes and listening through the person's ears. Our own viewpoint may be different and we may not necessarily agree with the person, but as we listen, we understand from the other's perspective. To listen effectively, we must be actively involved in the communication process, and not just listening passively.
We all act and respond on the basis of our understanding, and too often there is a misunderstanding that neither of us is aware of. With active listening, if a misunderstanding has occurred, it will be known immediately, and the communication can be clarified before any further misunderstanding occurs.
Several other possible benefits occur with active listening:
Sometimes a person just needs to be heard and acknowledged before the person is willing to consider an alternative or soften his /her position.
It is often easier for a person to listen to and consider the other’s position when that person knows the other is listening and considering his/her position.
It helps people to spot the flaws in their reasoning when they hear it played back without criticism.
It also helps identify areas of agreement so the areas of disagreement are put in perspective and are diminished rather than magnified.
Reflecting back what we hear each other say helps give each a chance to become aware of the different levels that are going on below the surface. This helps to bring things into the open where they can be more readily resolved.
If we accurately understand the other person’s view, we can be more effective in helping the person see the flaws in his/her position.
If we listen so we can accurately understand the other’s view, we can also be more effective in discovering the flaws in our own position.
Listening Tips
Usually it is important to paraphrase and use your own words in verbalizing your understanding of the message. Parroting back the words verbatim is annoying and does not ensure accurate understanding of the message.
Depending on the purpose of the interaction and your understanding of what is relevant, you could reflect back the other persons:
Account of the facts.
Thoughts and beliefs.
Feelings and emotions.
Wants, needs or motivation.
Hopes and expectations.
Don’t respond to just the meaning of the words, look for the feelings or intent beyond the words. The dictionary or surface meaning of the words or code used by the sender is not the message.
Inhibit your impulse to immediately answer questions. The code may be in the form of a question. Sometimes people ask questions when they really want to express themselves and are not open to hearing an answer.
Know when to quit using active listening. Once you accurately understand the sender’s message, it may be appropriate to respond with your own message. Don’t use active listening to hide and avoid revealing your own position.
If you are confused and know you do not understand, either tell the person you don’t understand and ask him/her to say it another way, or use your best guess. If you are incorrect, the person will realize it and will likely attempt to correct your misunderstanding.
Active listening is a very effective first response when the other person is angry, hurt or expressing difficult feelings toward you, especially in relationships that are important to you.
Use eye contact and listening body language. Avoid looking at your watch or at other people or activities around the room. Face and lean toward the speaker and nod your head, as it is appropriate. Be careful about crossing your arms and appearing closed or critical.
Be empathic and nonjudgmental. You can be accepting and respectful of the person and their feelings and beliefs without invalidating or giving up your own position, or without agreeing with the accuracy and validity of their view.
How to Make Your Speaking Easier and More Effective
How to Make Your Speaking Easier and More Effective
Audience Analysis
Remember that the members of the audience are supposed to be the beneficiaries of your communication.
Don't make too many assumptions about your audience. But you do have to make some.
Figure out the basics. Who are these people?
demographics (age, ethnicity, gender mix, etc.).
predispositions (hopes, fears, positives/negatives, level of interest).
knowledge of/experience with subject/me.
In what kind of setting will they receive this information?
large lecture hall or small seminar room or classroom.
lighting and sound issues.
time of day.
Take into account the "me, here, now."
Picture yourself as a member of the audience and ask "How does this message affect me, here, now?"
Me, here, now translates into what you as a sender have to offer your audience/receivers—what they will be able to understand, accept, support, consider important—because it matters to them.
Establish cognitive / behavioral objectives for your audience:
What do I want my audience to know?
What do I want my audience to do
Openings, and Closings
OPENINGS. Stay away from the predictable (Good morning..., Today, I'm here to talk about...). Instead:
Begin with a provocative question, anecdote, or current event—and how it relates to the content.
Ask the audience a question
Set up a problem—and promise that they'll have all the tools for a solution by the end of the class.
CLOSINGS. Many speakers simply talk until the end of the time or beyond it—and say, "I see we're out of time." Instead:
Plan a rhythm for your speaking—plan to end with content 5 minutes early, so you can summarize, raise questions.
Set aside a time for questions—and structure that time.
Preparation
You probably can't cover everything you want to in a talk or speech.
Decide what is essential, what is important, and what is helpful (what would be nice).
Cover the first; try to cover the second; forget about the third.
Release a little control over the material and rely on the textbook or a list of supplementary readings for the nonessentials.
Set objectives.
What do you want to have accomplished at the end of the speech?
What do you want the audience to know at the end of the speech?
Plan a speech to cover less than the allotted period.
It takes some time to get going.
Questions always take up more time than you expect.
Divide the speech/talk into discrete segments and follow the standard speech structure.
Divide it both in terms of time and in terms of material.
Try for roughly equal blocks, each one on a topic.
Unlike in a piece of writing, you should tell them what you'll say, say it, and tell them what you've said.
Speak from notes or an outline, rather than a complete text.
It's too tempting to simply read, rather than lecture, from a complete text.
Reading also creates a barrier between speaker and audience.
Writing up an entire speech is very time consuming.
A written speech often becomes a fossil that never gets updated.
Delivery
Be conversational; speak naturally; be yourself (or your best self).
That self may be formal, "laid back," understated, or hyper. Use those traits; don't fight against them.
Talk about the material; don't lecture about it.
(Talking is easier if you don't read verbatim.)
Vary your pacing and voice.
Gauge audience reaction, and
Repeat critical points immediately if you sense the necessity.
Use your voice to underline and italicize the important points.
Pause before new points.
Use transitional statements to move to the next idea.
Use gestures to emphasize points.
Consider gestures to be a mirror of your voice.
Adjust your gestures to the size of the room.
Look at the audience.
Try to cover all parts of the room by dividing it into four quadrants.
If direct eye contact makes you forget your place, try looking just over a student's head, or between two students (They won't see the difference).
Use language to create pictures.
Use metaphors, analogies, and similes.
Observe the techniques of others.
Try out in your own talks techniques you admire in others.
Like any skill, delivery is not innate, but must be learned
Credibility & Commitment
Although speaking isn't theater, we do know that audience find concepts, knowledge, skills, and ideas most accessible and credible from someone they consider . . . well, not dull.
Think about antecedent image—perception is often stronger than reality.
Credibility is enhanced by:
Your own sense of comfort and confidence presenting material.
Your enthusiasm and interest in teaching.
Your research and own ideas.
Commitment is enhanced by:
Relating your own experience, ideas, and feelings.
Taking the first person approach, not separating yourself from your subject.
Relating your "passion" for your subject.
Delivery is tied to both commitment and credibility:
An old UCLA study of effective presentations analyzed 3 elements (verbal, vocal, visual). Here's what it found was important in establishing credibility/believability:
Verbal (words you say): 7%.
Vocal (how you sound when you say them): 38%.
Visual (how you look when you say them): 55%.
Your energy and intensity will move your audience—and help you (them) reach your objectives.
Building Interaction
Learning takes place best in an active, not a passive environment.
Interaction is a continuous way to
Assess the me, here, now.
Determine whether or not your content is understood.
Share the responsibility of learning more equitably and appropriately.
How to build interaction?
Have questions prepared—begin with relatively easy, accessible ones.
Work to get everyone involved, even in large groups.
Ask the audience to consider issues with the person sitting next to them/jot down ideas, questions, concerns.
Discuss as a larger group.
Move yourself!
Don't scurry back and forth, but don't get locked into one position.
Handling Questions
Explicitly request and encourage questions.
The audience will see that you have a genuine interest in what they're thinking.
Be aware of how your behavior and comments can set the tone for questioning.
A negative response (e.g., "We've already covered that") discourages further questions and may make the audience think you don't really want questions.
Make sure everyone hears the question.
Repeat it if necessary.
But don't make a habit of simply repeating every question.
Ask the audience if they heard the question; then ask the person to repeat.
Clarify questions.
Say, "Do you mean that . . . ," or "I'm sorry, I don't understand the question," rather than "Your question isn't clear."
Answer questions as directly as possible.
Address your answer to the whole audience.
Ask whether you have answered the question.
Be diplomatic when people raise tangential, overly complicated questions, or persistently ask questions just to be asking.
Ask them to stop by after the presentation or to contact you.
If a someone is simply confused, say, "Let me go over this point a bit more slowly."
Getting Feedback
Get regular feedback.
Ask the audience to spend the last five minutes of class writing down the most important thing they learned that day or one question they have as a result of the talk.
Or ask them to write down questions they still have.
Use eye contact as a tool for continuous feedback.
If you notice people with questioning looks, stop what you're doing and ask if you need to clarify.
If you get no response, go ahead and clarify.
Audience Analysis
Remember that the members of the audience are supposed to be the beneficiaries of your communication.
Don't make too many assumptions about your audience. But you do have to make some.
Figure out the basics. Who are these people?
demographics (age, ethnicity, gender mix, etc.).
predispositions (hopes, fears, positives/negatives, level of interest).
knowledge of/experience with subject/me.
In what kind of setting will they receive this information?
large lecture hall or small seminar room or classroom.
lighting and sound issues.
time of day.
Take into account the "me, here, now."
Picture yourself as a member of the audience and ask "How does this message affect me, here, now?"
Me, here, now translates into what you as a sender have to offer your audience/receivers—what they will be able to understand, accept, support, consider important—because it matters to them.
Establish cognitive / behavioral objectives for your audience:
What do I want my audience to know?
What do I want my audience to do
Openings, and Closings
OPENINGS. Stay away from the predictable (Good morning..., Today, I'm here to talk about...). Instead:
Begin with a provocative question, anecdote, or current event—and how it relates to the content.
Ask the audience a question
Set up a problem—and promise that they'll have all the tools for a solution by the end of the class.
CLOSINGS. Many speakers simply talk until the end of the time or beyond it—and say, "I see we're out of time." Instead:
Plan a rhythm for your speaking—plan to end with content 5 minutes early, so you can summarize, raise questions.
Set aside a time for questions—and structure that time.
Preparation
You probably can't cover everything you want to in a talk or speech.
Decide what is essential, what is important, and what is helpful (what would be nice).
Cover the first; try to cover the second; forget about the third.
Release a little control over the material and rely on the textbook or a list of supplementary readings for the nonessentials.
Set objectives.
What do you want to have accomplished at the end of the speech?
What do you want the audience to know at the end of the speech?
Plan a speech to cover less than the allotted period.
It takes some time to get going.
Questions always take up more time than you expect.
Divide the speech/talk into discrete segments and follow the standard speech structure.
Divide it both in terms of time and in terms of material.
Try for roughly equal blocks, each one on a topic.
Unlike in a piece of writing, you should tell them what you'll say, say it, and tell them what you've said.
Speak from notes or an outline, rather than a complete text.
It's too tempting to simply read, rather than lecture, from a complete text.
Reading also creates a barrier between speaker and audience.
Writing up an entire speech is very time consuming.
A written speech often becomes a fossil that never gets updated.
Delivery
Be conversational; speak naturally; be yourself (or your best self).
That self may be formal, "laid back," understated, or hyper. Use those traits; don't fight against them.
Talk about the material; don't lecture about it.
(Talking is easier if you don't read verbatim.)
Vary your pacing and voice.
Gauge audience reaction, and
Repeat critical points immediately if you sense the necessity.
Use your voice to underline and italicize the important points.
Pause before new points.
Use transitional statements to move to the next idea.
Use gestures to emphasize points.
Consider gestures to be a mirror of your voice.
Adjust your gestures to the size of the room.
Look at the audience.
Try to cover all parts of the room by dividing it into four quadrants.
If direct eye contact makes you forget your place, try looking just over a student's head, or between two students (They won't see the difference).
Use language to create pictures.
Use metaphors, analogies, and similes.
Observe the techniques of others.
Try out in your own talks techniques you admire in others.
Like any skill, delivery is not innate, but must be learned
Credibility & Commitment
Although speaking isn't theater, we do know that audience find concepts, knowledge, skills, and ideas most accessible and credible from someone they consider . . . well, not dull.
Think about antecedent image—perception is often stronger than reality.
Credibility is enhanced by:
Your own sense of comfort and confidence presenting material.
Your enthusiasm and interest in teaching.
Your research and own ideas.
Commitment is enhanced by:
Relating your own experience, ideas, and feelings.
Taking the first person approach, not separating yourself from your subject.
Relating your "passion" for your subject.
Delivery is tied to both commitment and credibility:
An old UCLA study of effective presentations analyzed 3 elements (verbal, vocal, visual). Here's what it found was important in establishing credibility/believability:
Verbal (words you say): 7%.
Vocal (how you sound when you say them): 38%.
Visual (how you look when you say them): 55%.
Your energy and intensity will move your audience—and help you (them) reach your objectives.
Building Interaction
Learning takes place best in an active, not a passive environment.
Interaction is a continuous way to
Assess the me, here, now.
Determine whether or not your content is understood.
Share the responsibility of learning more equitably and appropriately.
How to build interaction?
Have questions prepared—begin with relatively easy, accessible ones.
Work to get everyone involved, even in large groups.
Ask the audience to consider issues with the person sitting next to them/jot down ideas, questions, concerns.
Discuss as a larger group.
Move yourself!
Don't scurry back and forth, but don't get locked into one position.
Handling Questions
Explicitly request and encourage questions.
The audience will see that you have a genuine interest in what they're thinking.
Be aware of how your behavior and comments can set the tone for questioning.
A negative response (e.g., "We've already covered that") discourages further questions and may make the audience think you don't really want questions.
Make sure everyone hears the question.
Repeat it if necessary.
But don't make a habit of simply repeating every question.
Ask the audience if they heard the question; then ask the person to repeat.
Clarify questions.
Say, "Do you mean that . . . ," or "I'm sorry, I don't understand the question," rather than "Your question isn't clear."
Answer questions as directly as possible.
Address your answer to the whole audience.
Ask whether you have answered the question.
Be diplomatic when people raise tangential, overly complicated questions, or persistently ask questions just to be asking.
Ask them to stop by after the presentation or to contact you.
If a someone is simply confused, say, "Let me go over this point a bit more slowly."
Getting Feedback
Get regular feedback.
Ask the audience to spend the last five minutes of class writing down the most important thing they learned that day or one question they have as a result of the talk.
Or ask them to write down questions they still have.
Use eye contact as a tool for continuous feedback.
If you notice people with questioning looks, stop what you're doing and ask if you need to clarify.
If you get no response, go ahead and clarify.
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)